Calaveras in Mexican Art History

You probably know calaveras are associated with Mexican Day of the Dead celebrations, but there's much more to this popular symbol than just sugary treats. Let's explore the history behind this well-known emblem of Mexican culture by delving into its appearance in art.

What is a calavera?

A calavera (or “skull” in Spanish) is a stylized representation of a skull or skeleton, often associated with Day of the Dead celebrations. Edible sugar skulls made for Día de Muertos festivities are also called calaveras. 

Calaveras are often elaborately decorated with colorful foil and designs like birds, patterns, flowers, and feathers. They can represent individual people or generic types, but they almost always have an element of humor or satire, poking fun at the idea of death. They emphasize the link between the living and the dead on a holiday that commemorates loved ones who have passed away. 

Artistic images of skulls and bones date back to Mezoamerican civilization and can also be seen in the Catholic art the Spanish brought to Mexico. However, the calavera as we know it today is a product of the late 19th-early 20th century, appearing in mass publications and folk art.

Calaveras and Satire

Calaveras are typically satirical figures, representing exaggerated, humorous caricatures of the people they depict. One of the most famous satirical calaveras is José Guadalupe Posada’s Calavera Catrina (1913), who represents the wealthy upper classes in Mexico and their obsession with European fashion (as seen in the elaborate hat). 

José Guadalupe Posada, Calavera Catrina, 1913

In the early 20th century, class tensions and the concentration of wealth in the hands of the few led to popular uprisings that would result in the Mexican Revolution (1910). In this era, Posada’s work channeled the frustrations of working class people who felt like they didn’t have a voice.

José Guadalupe Posada

José Guadalupe Posada, Calaveras Riding Bicycles, c. 1900

Posada (1852-1913) was a political cartoonist and lithographer with a powerful satirical sensibility. He popularized the figure of the calavera as we know it today with a series of prints and broadsheets he would create for mass distribution in his Mexico City studio. Placing his art directly into the hands of the people, he removed barriers between the artist and the public, encouraging his calaveras to be adopted as a part of popular expression and public discourse.

Calaveras in the Work of Other Famous Mexican Artists

In the early 20th century, a group of politically active artists that included José Clemente Orozco, Diego Rivera, Frida Kahlo, Aurora Reyes Flores, and David Alfaro Siqueiros used their work to promote a sense of national identity and working class liberation. Several of these artists used huge murals in public spaces to spread their message and promote the idea that art is for everyone. 

Politically charged calavera images like those of Posada appeared frequently in the work of these artists. 

José Clemente Orozco

Orozco (1883-1949) was highly influenced by Posada, whose busy Mexico City workshop he would walk past every day on his way to his studies. Watching the prolific printmaker at work made him want to become an artist.

In his mural Gods of the Modern World for the Dartmouth University library, the skeleton motif takes on a surreal dimension as a giant skeleton gives birth to a tiny skeletal figure while robed calavera figures look on. Graduation caps and burning books suggest a theme of knowledge being spread and/or suppressed. In this work, the satirical dimension of calavera art becomes dark and disturbing, evoking the ways death is perpetuated by generation after generation. 

José Clemente Orozco, Gods of the Modern World, 1932-34. Image by Wikimedia Commons user Daderot. CC BY-SA 3.0.

Diego Rivera 

Perhaps the most famous of the Mexican muralists, Rivera (1886-1957) created massive paintings that remain displayed in public spaces throughout the country. In this epic work, he takes Posada’s Calavera Catrina as his subject, along with 400 years of Mexican civilization.

Diego Rivera, Dream of a Sunday Afternoon in the Alameda, 1946-47. Image via Wikimedia Commons user Jbribeiro1. CC BY-SA 4.0.

The feather boa Rivera’s Calavera Catrina is wearing is actually the Aztec and Mayan feathered serpent deity Quetzalcoatl, linking her to a deep sense of Mexican identity. In addition, her dress is that of an Indigenous woman rather than the lacy frills associated with European fashion, as seen in Posada’s original.

Rivera depicts her standing next to Posada, Rivera’s wife Frida Kahlo, and himself as a young boy as part of a festive crowd. In this painting, he reclaims the Calavera Catrina’s Indigenous identity in contrast to Posada’s original engraving, remaking her into an icon of national pride.

Frida Kahlo

Mexican-German artist Frida Kahlo (1907-1954) was famous for her small, intimate self-portraits. In this one, she depicts herself as a young girl wearing a calavera mask and standing in an ominous, empty landscape. The marigold she holds is also associated with Day of the Dead traditions. Here, the death’s head evokes an unsettling feeling of dread as it’s paired with childhood innocence. 

Frida Kahlo, Girl with Death Mask, 1938

Together, these artists transformed popular representations of calaveras with their work, evoking humor, horror, fascination, and pride. 

Indigenous Roots and Spanish Influence

Scholars who study the history of Mexican art trace the origins of calaveras and other Day of the Dead traditions back to Spanish contact with Indigenous traditions. The Day of the Dead is celebrated on the Catholic feast of All Souls Day (November 2), when the deceased are traditionally remembered in prayers. This tradition merged with Indigenous beliefs about the afterlife and the spirit world to form a unique cultural expression.

Wood skull mask, Central Mexico, c. 1400-1521

Skull imagery was frequently used in statues, paintings, and pottery in the Aztec and Mayan cultures, probably for rituals related to death and mourning. The feathered serpent god Quetzalcoatl is sometimes associated with skull masks. He was believed to rule over the wind, knowledge and learning, arts and crafts, and the planet Venus. Death and life were intimately connected in Indigenous belief systems.

Here are some more examples of skulls in Mesoamerican art from before colonization:

Skull inlaid with turquoise and mother of pearl, Aztec/Mixtec, 15th century

Life-Death Figure, Huastec. 900-1250

Spanish Memento Mori Art

Memento mori art depicting death’s head imagery was frequently seen in Europe from the Middle Ages through the 1700s. It was meant to carry a message that death could come at any time, encouraging piety and repentance in the people who viewed it. 

Spanish colonizers brought this artistic tradition with them when they traveled to lands possessed by the Aztecs and other Indigenous groups.

Vincente Masip, Calavera (Memento Mori), 16th century

This is a typical memento mori painting, depicting a skull along with Latin text reminding the viewer of mortality. It reads “remember me in all your works” and encourages onlookers to avoid sin. 

Juan de Valdes Leal, In Ictu Oculi, 1670-72

This painting was commissioned for the Hospital de la Ciudad in Seville in the late 17th century, and it shows a vanitas motif that was popular at the time. This genre of painting used skull and skeleton imagery to convey that life and earthly possessions are fleeting. The Latin motto means “in the twinkling of an eye.”

Calavera Folk Art

Calaveras appear in many forms of folk art associated with Day of the Dead, from ceramic skulls and wood carvings to papier mache skeleton figurines and masks. The most popular type of folk art is probably the sugar skulls purchased at special market stalls around the holiday, with some artisans working year round to make calaveras to sell to the public.

The sugar is mixed with lemon juice before being placed in molds, a process called alfeñique. Sometimes the skulls are flavored with vanilla or other additives, then decorated with icing, colorful foil, or candied fruits.

Calavera Face Painting

Face painting is another popular expression of calavera art. Some people even paint their hands and bodies to create the illusion of skeleton bones, a process that can take hours.

Much of this calavera face and body painting is directly inspired by Posada’s etchings, especially Calavera Catrina. However, people often add lacy designs around the eyes and whimsical curlicues and gems to create a sense of fun and self-expression.

A male figure known as Catrin often appears alongside Catrina, and people dress up in elaborate costumes to embody the two figures. Catrina fashion shows and themed balls are often part of Día de Muertos celebrations, raising money for charity and bringing communities together.

As you can see, calaveras have a deep and rich history in Mexican art, and artists have been exploring their facets for over a century. Appearing in everything from political satire to festive celebrations, they are a unique form of cultural expression that has only gotten more popular through the years.